Industrial
and Organizational Psychology
This document
is an abridged version of the approved CRSPPP (Committee on the Recognition of
Specialties and Proficiencies in Professional Psychology) petition for the
recognition of Industrial and Organizational Psychology as a specialty in
professional psychology.
Industrial and
Organizational Psychology is represented by the Society for Industrial and
Organizational Psychology (SIOP) www.siop.org:
SIOP
Administrative Office
520 Ordway Ave.
Bowling Green, OH 43402
Tel:
419-353-0032
Fax: 419-352-2645
Siop@siop.org
Brief description of the
specialty
Industrial/Organizational
(I/O) psychology is both the study of behavior in organizational and work
settings and the application of the methods, facts, and principles of psychology
to individuals and groups in organizational and work settings.
I/O psychologists are versatile behavioral scientists specializing in
human behavior in the workplace. I/O psychologists recognize the interdependence
of individuals, organizations, and society, and they recognize the impact of
factors such as increasing government influences, growing consumer awareness,
skill shortages, and the changing nature of the workforce. I/O psychologists
facilitate responses to issues and problems involving people at work by serving
as advisors and catalysts for business, industry, labor, public, academic,
community, and health organizations. They are:
- Scientists
who derive principles of individual, group, and organizational behavior through
research;
- Consultants
and staff psychologists who develop scientific knowledge and apply it to the
solution of problems at work; and
- Teachers who
train students in the research and application of Industrial-Organizational
Psychology
The
following parameters differentiate the I/O specialty from others.
a.
Populations: The distinct focus of I/O psychology is on human
behavior in work settings. Therefore, the populations affected by the practice
of I/O psychology include individuals in and applicants to business, industry,
labor, public (including non-profit), academic, community, and health
organizations.
b.
Problems: I/O psychologists deal with problems or issues that can
be classified as both applied and basic in nature.
Basic problems are quite variable, following the investigator's
interests. Examples include research on methods of behavioral measurement,
communication, motivation, social interaction, and leadership. Applied problems
and activities are oriented around scientific solutions to human problems at
work. These latter problems and
activities include but are not limited to:
Recruitment, Selection and
Placement: Analyzing jobs and work, developing recruitment procedures,
developing selection procedures, validating tests, optimizing placement of
personnel, and identifying management potential
Training and Development:
Identifying training and development needs, formulating and implementing
training programs, coaching employees, evaluating the effectiveness of training
and development programs, and planning careers.
Performance Measurement:
Developing criteria, determining the economic utility of performance, and
evaluating organizational effectiveness.
Motivation and Reward Systems:
Developing, implementing, and evaluating motivation and reward programs
such as goal setting programs or pay-for-performance plans.
Organizational Development:
Analyzing organizational structures and climates, maximizing the satisfaction
and effectiveness of individuals and work groups, and facilitating
organizational change.
Quality of Work Life:
Identifying factors associated with job attitudes, designing and implementing
programs to reduce work stress and strain, developing programs that promote safe
work behavior and the prevention of accidents, illnesses, and injuries, and
designing programs that enhance work/family life.
Consumer Behavior:
Assessing consumer preferences, evaluating customer satisfaction with products
and services, and developing market segmentation strategies.
The Structure of Work and
Human Factors: Designing jobs and work, optimizing person-machine
effectiveness, and developing systems technologies.
c.
Procedures and techniques: A
variety of procedures, tools, techniques and guidance documents have been
developed to assist I/O psychologists in effectively addressing the above types
of issues and problems. Notably,
I/O psychologists have rigorously developed both standardized and more
situationally-specific procedures and techniques for assessing the three primary
elements in a work system the worker, the work itself, and the work context.
In regard to the assessment of worker characteristics, these procedures
would include tests and other means for evaluating more stable individual
differences such as cognitive abilities, personality characteristics, values,
and physical abilities and more transient characteristics or work behaviors. In
addition, numerous procedures have been developed for analyzing the content and
human requirements of work, collectively referred to as job analysis procedures.
With respect to the evaluation of work context variables, procedures have
been developed to assess and effectively manage organizational culture and
climate, organizational reward systems, and the design of organizations.
In addition, I/O psychologists
have focused on the development of procedures for addressing important
statistical/methodological issues and problems such as the extent to which
employment test validity coefficients generalize across situations, procedures
for aggregating individual-level data to the group- and organization-level, and
procedures for translating the effectiveness of behavioral interventions into
estimates of economic utility.
Finally, the Society for
Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) has produced guidelines and
white papers, which serve to promote good practice such as the Principles for
the Validation and Use of Personnel Selection Procedures (Society for
Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1987), Ethical Practice of
Psychology in Organizations (Lowman, 1998), and Affirmative Action: A
Review of Psychological and Behavioral Research (Kravitz, Harrison, Turner,
Levine, Chaves, Brannick, Denning, Russell, & Conard, 1997).
For instance, the former document specifies the principles of good
practice in the choice, development, evaluation, and use of personnel selection
procedures.
Theoretical and scientific knowledge required for the
specialty
I/O psychologists should acquire knowledge of
research and theory on the social bases of behavior, cognitive-affective bases
of behavior, and individual differences theory. Social, cognitive, developmental, learning, and individual
difference theories continue to play important roles in theory development and
research in I/O psychology. Although
knowledge of research and theory on the biological bases of behavior is
important for I/O psychologists dealing with specific practice issues or more
specific research issues (e.g., the role of cortical regulatory systems in
experienced affect at work), practice and research in I/O psychology is much
less focused than some other specialties on the biological bases of behavior.
I/O psychologists require distinctive knowledge of
ethical and legal issues associated with practice in organizations.
To this end, SIOP and APA have produced a book to educate I/O
psychologists about the unique ethical dilemmas faced in applying psychology in
work settings. This volume provides
guidance with respect to ethical issues in personnel selection, organizational
diagnosis and intervention, managing consulting relationships, research,
professional certification and training, and professional behavior. In regard to
legal issues, I/O psychologists need to be knowledgeable of statutory (e.g.,
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1991) and administrative laws (e.g., Equal
Employment Opportunity Act of 1972), executive orders (e.g., Executive Order
11246), and court decisions (e.g., Griggs v. Duke Power, Wards Cove Packing
Company v. Atonio) as they apply to the practice of psychology in organizations.
Overview
Of The Required Knowledge And Practice Activities For Seven Core Professional
Practice Domains
a.
Assessment: I/O psychologists must have knowledge and skills to
assess jobs and work, performance, and people.
For assessing jobs and work, knowledge of alternative methods for
describing work and the human attributes necessary to perform the work is
needed. For instance, I/O
psychologists should be knowledgeable of the numerous inventories used to
describe work and worker characteristics (e.g., O*NET, Position Analysis
Questionnaire, Occupational Analysis Inventory, Functional Job Analysis).
In regard to assessing performance, knowledge of subjective and objective
measures of job performance is required. For
instance, I/O psychologists should be knowledgeable and skillful in the
development of behavior-focused rating forms such Behaviorally Anchored Ratings
Scales (BARS) and Behavior Observation Scales (BOS). For assessing individuals,
I/O psychologists need to be knowledgeable of a variety of procedures for
assessing individuals including psychological tests, biographical information,
interviews, work samples, assessment centers, surveys, and the use of computers
in assessment.
Representative
practice activities:
1.
Assessing the content of work via job analysis procedures for the purpose
of developing performance appraisal procedures.
2.
Assessing the human requirements of work via job analysis procedures for
the purpose of developing or identifying personnel selection procedures.
3.
Assessing individual characteristics via psychological tests, interviews,
work samples, and other means for selecting individuals into jobs and career
development.
4.
Assessing employee knowledge, skill or work performance via a host of
evaluation procedures for the purpose of identifying training needs.
5.
Assessing employee perceptions of work environment characteristics via
survey procedures for the purpose of managing an organizations climate.
b.
Intervention: I/O
psychologists design and evaluate the effectiveness of many types of
interventions directed at individuals in groups such as goal setting and
feedback interventions, personnel training programs, and workplace interventions
to prevent stress-related illness. I/O psychologists may or may not be experts
in the content of the intervention or training program, but they must possess
knowledge of program design and evaluation.
For instance, with respect to personnel training, I/O psychologists need
to know how to conduct a needs assessment, how to design a training program
taking into account trainee characteristics and other factors that are likely to
affect the transfer of training, and how to evaluate a training program
including structuring a study that specifies how data are to be collected and
choosing or developing measures of the criteria.
In addition, I/O psychologists must be knowledgeable of organizational
change techniques and the relative effectiveness of organizational development
interventions.
Representative
practice activities:
1.
Implementing a form of programmed instruction, ranging from printed
booklets to interactive videotapes to computer-assisted instruction programs,
designed to develop employees declarative and procedural knowledge.
2.
Conducting simulation training for the development of technical skills in
controlled and safe environments.
3.
Conducting frame of reference training for raters who appraise others,
where the raters are given a common and consistent frame of reference on which
to make judgments.
4.
Implementing process improvements and job enrichment, efforts to expand a
workers role in planning, improving, and performing their work.
5.
Implementing team building and organizational development interventions
with groups or teams. These
interventions are designed to enhance team member morale, problem-solving
skills, and team effectiveness.
c.
Consultation: I/O psychologists must be knowledgeable of the roles
and functions of others with whom they will interact on a professional basis.
Given that organizations are open systems in continual interaction with
multiple, dynamic environments, the form and level of consultation that an I/O
psychologist has will vary from one setting to another and over time within any
particular setting. Although
primary consultation is with management personnel, the type of work and work
context may necessitate consultation with other organizational stakeholder
groups such as union personnel, those involved in our legal system,
organizational suppliers, and consumer/client groups.
Broad knowledge of the above content areas as well as knowledge of
strategic decision-making and organizational stakeholder groups are helpful in
consultation with others.
Representative
practice activities:
1.
Working with compensation specialists to establish organizational reward
systems.
2.
Participating with engineers in the planning, design, and testing of
person-machine systems.
3.
Obtaining the advice of legal professionals concerning the implications
of court decisions for the validation and use of personnel selection procedures.
4.
Consulting with mental health, public health, and medical personnel on
the design and evaluation of workplace interventions intended to reduce work
stress and strain.
5.
Interacting with union personnel concerning the protection of union
member rights when planning assessments and interventions.
d.
Supervision: Knowledge
required for supervision in Industrial/Organizational psychology includes not
only knowledge that is generic to all professional supervision, but also
knowledge of general standards (e.g., APA, 1992; AERA, APA, & NCME, 1999;
Code of Fair Testing Practices, 2000) and knowledge and skills specific to the
practice of I/O psychology.
American Eductional Research
Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on
Measurement in Education. (1999). Standards
for educational and psychological testing.
Washington, D.C.: AERA
Publications.
American Psychological Association. (1992). Ethical
principles of psychologists and code of conduct. Washington, D.C.: Author.
Code of Fair Testing
Practices in Education. (2000) Washington, D.C.: Joint Committee on Testing
Practices. (Mailing Address: Joint Committee on Testing Practices, American
Psychological Association, 750 First Street, NE, Washington, DC, 20002-4242.)
Representative
practice activities:
1.
Supervising the development of psychological tests.
2.
Managing the administration of an employee survey.
3.
Supervising the design of an employee performance appraisal system.
4.
Leading an analysis to determine the solution to an organizational
problem.
5.
Managing the implementation of an organizational change effort, such as a
new reward system for high performing employees or process improvements.
6.
Supervising student research
e.
Research and Inquiry: I/O psychologists must have extensive
knowledge of research strategies and research methodology as well as knowledge
of psychometrics and statistics.
Representative
practice activities:
1.
Evaluating the effectiveness of an organizational intervention, such as
job redesign intervention or process improvements.
2.
Studying the transfer of training to the job.
3.
Conducting a criterion-related validity study to determine the predictive
effectiveness of a personnel selection procedure.
4.
Estimating the economic impact of a personnel selection or training
program.
5.
Studying the relation between organizational commitment and turnover.
6.
Conducting laboratory experiments, field experiments, or field studies
f.
Consumer Protection: I/O
psychologists should acquire knowledge of ethical principles of psychologists
and the ethical practice of psychology in organizations.
In addition, SIOP operates a web site and consultant locator service
designed to help those interested in finding an individual or firm with
experience and expertise in particular practice areas.
Representative
practice activities:
1.
Communicating to clients the relevant legal and technical aspects of a
selection program or some other I/O-psychology related program in terms the
organizational representatives can understand.
2.
Indicating to potential client organizations that assessment procedures
will be developed only according to professionally acceptable standards.
3.
Establishing clear rules as to how sensitive data (e.g., pre-employment
drug test results) will be maintained and how results will be communicated to
all parties.
4.
Examining promotional materials for I/O psychology-related products and
services and requesting the right of approval prior to distribution to the
public.
5.
Obtaining permission from a client organization prior to discussing
consulting work in a public forum.
g.
Professional Development: I/O psychologists have opportunities to
update their knowledge and skills on a regular basis through participation in
SIOP sponsored workshops and conferences. A
sampling of workshops held at the most recent Annual Conference is presented
below. In addition, many I/O
psychologists belong to other APA Divisions (e.g., Division 5, Evaluation,
Measurement and Statistics; Division 19, Military Psychology), professional
societies such as the Academy of Management, and local associations (e.g.,
Personnel Testing Council of Metropolitan Washington D.C.) that provide further
professional development opportunities.
Representative
practice activities:
1.
Attending conferences to learn about research and practice developments.
2.
Participating in professional development workshops such as those
conducted at SIOPs Annual Conference.
3.
Reading APA and SIOP task force reports, journals, and books concerning
research and practice developments (such as the books published in SIOPs
Frontiers Series and SIOPs Professional Practice Series).
4.
Reading SIOPs quarterly journal TIP (The
Industrial/Organizational Psychologist) to update knowledge concerning the
latest I/O psychology-relevant information on a variety of topics.
5.
Participating in professional, scientific, and educational organizations
whose mission is (in whole or part) to advance the knowledge and practice of
industrial and organizational psychology.
Other
Areas of I/O Specific Scientific Knowledge
There are a variety of other
specific specialty areas within I/O psychology that build upon a basic
scientific core. Twenty of these
areas are discussed below:
1. Research Methods
The domain of research methods
includes the methods, procedures, techniques, and tools useful in
the conduct of
empirical research on
phenomena of interest in
I/O psychology. At a general level,
the areas encompassed by research methods include the scientific
method (with attention to issues in the philosophy of
science), inductive
and deductive reasoning,
problem statements and research
questions, hypotheses, the nature
and definition of constructs,
and study
designs (experimental, quasi-experimental, and
non-experimental). At
a more operational level, research
methods includes, but is not limited
to, the
manipulation of variables
(in experimental research), the
concepts underlying and
methods used for the assessment of the reliability and validity
of measures, the
administration of various specific types of
measures (questionnaires, interviews, observations
of behavior, projective measures,
etc.), the use of various sampling procedures (probability
and non-probability type)
especially as
applied to survey research, the
conduct of research with
various specific strategies (field study, laboratory experiments,
field experiment, sample survey, simulation, case study, etc.), the use of
statistical methods to establish relationships between variables, and
the formulation
of research-based conclusions. Specific knowledge about relative
strengths and weaknesses of different research strategies,
an understanding of qualitative research
methods, as well as a tolerant appreciation
of the benefits of alternative
strategies must be developed. Computer
literacy has become increasingly important, and programming skills may be
particularly useful. Finally, an understanding of the ethical standards that
govern the conduct
of all research involving human participants is essential.
2.
Statistical Methods/Data Analysis
This
domain has to do with the various
statistical techniques that are used in
the analysis of data generated by empirical research. The domain includes both
descriptive and
inferential statistical methods; it
spans both parametric
and nonparametric
statistical methods.
Among the
specific competencies,
issues and techniques encompassed by the domain are: estimates of
central tendency; estimates of variability; sampling distributions; point and
interval estimates;
inferences about
differences between
means, proportions,
and so forth; univariate and
multivariate analyses of variance (fixed,
random, and mixed effects models);
linear and non-linear regression and
correlation; path analysis; multiple
discriminant function analysis; multiple
and canonical regression; factor
analysis; components analysis; cluster
analysis; pattern
analysis; and
structural equation
modeling. Knowledge
of this domain
implies a basic understanding of
the statistical foundation
of such methods,
asymptotic sampling
variances of different statistics,
the assumptions underlying the
proper use of the same methods, and
the generalizations,
inferences, and
interpretations that can legitimately
be made
on the
basis of
statistical evidence.
3.
Attitude Theory, Measurement, and Change
Attitudes,
opinions and beliefs
are extremely important in
organizational settings.
They are important in
their own right because
of humanitarian concerns
for the quality
of working life of
those who are
employed in organizations.
They are
also important
for diagnosing
problems in organizations.
Finally, they
are important because
they relate to
the behavioral
intentions and the behaviors of
individuals at work. Some of the job
attitudes typically studied
by I/O psychologists include, but
are not limited
to, job satisfaction (general and
various facets), job involvement, organizational
commitment, and perceptions of fairness.
4.
Career Development
Theory
and research regarding career
development are concerned
with the interplay
between individuals and
environments and attempt to
describe the nature
of the patterns of positions held and resultant experiences during an individual's
lifespan. Included in this domain
are models and explanations of
the origin and measurement of individual
aptitudes and interests, how individual,
social, chance, and environmental
factors shape educational and training
experiences, specific skill
training and development, early
work history,
occupational choice,
organizational/job choice and
switching, the sequence
of jobs taken after
organizational entry, work/family issues,
midcareer
plateaus, and retirement planning.
5.
Consumer Behavior
The
focus of this area is the
systematic study of the
relationship between the
producers (or
distributors) and
consumers (actual
or potential recipients)
of goods
and services. Usually this involves
many of the following
concerns: consumer
preferences for
product features, consumer attitudes
and motivation, buying habits and
patterns, brand preferences, media
research (including
the effectiveness
of advertisements and commercials),
estimating demand for products or
services, and the study of the
economic expectations of people. Closely allied to those areas of market research
which focus on personal
consumption, there is a substantive or content
basis to this domain insofar as
there is a body of theory and data amassed
dealing with the antecedents and
correlates of consumer behavior which
should be learned. There is a skill
component to be mastered as well, inasmuch
as the area is built upon the
appropriate application of a variety of
social science
research methodologies (e.g., sampling
theory, questionnaire
and survey protocol design and execution, individual and group interviewing,
stimulus scaling,
and mathematical model building).
6.
Criterion Theory and Development
Almost
all applications of I/O psychology
(e.g., selection, human resources planning,
leadership, performance appraisal, organization design,
organization
diagnosis and
development, training)
involve measurements against
criteria (standards) that
indicate effectiveness on
the part of individuals,
groups, and/or organizations. The
selection of criteria is not a
simple issue and
represents a significant area
of concern for
I/O psychologists.
The
knowledge base of this domain incorporates understanding the theoretical issues
such as single
versus multiple criteria,
criterion dynamics, the characteristics
of good and
acceptable criteria (relevance,
reliability, practicality),
and criteria as a basis
for understanding human behavior at work
and in organizations. Knowledge of past research in this area, which is quite
extensive, is also necessary.
Beyond
this knowledge, the I/O psychologist should have the skills necessary for
developing valid
criteria and
methods of
measuring them.
These necessarily
include skills in many
of the other domains identified
in the document
(e.g., job analysis, psychometrics).
7.
Health and Stress in Organizations
Job
performance and effective organizational
functioning can be affected by health
and safety factors in
the work place which result in sub-optimal working
conditions and reduced
productivity. This competency area
requires the
study of
interactions between
human physical
capabilities and problematic
conditions in the
work place in an attempt to understand
the limits
of performance and negative effects on
workers. Among the factors considered
are hazardous
environmental conditions
induced by
toxic substances
(e.g., chemical, biological,
nuclear), loud noises,
blinding lights,
noxious odors.
Other factors
considered are
related to organizational
structure and
job design
such as
shift work,
or the requirements
of particular
tasks. Additional sources of organizational
stress
that may affect
performance, commitment, and attitudinal
variables include
downsizing, harassment,
work-family pressures, and outsourcing. There
should be some familiarity with
government standards relating to the work
place (e.g., Occupational Safety and Health Administration guidelines).
8.
Human Performance/Human Factors
Human
Performance is the study of
limitations and capabilities in human skilled
behavior. Skill is broadly
construed to include perceptual,
motor, memory,
and cognitive activities, and
the integration of these
into more complex
behavior. Emphasis is on the
interaction of human behavior
and tools,
tasks, and environments, ranging from detection and identification of simple
events to problem solving, decision
making, human errors, accidents, and
control of complex
environments. Included among the variables that
affect
human performance are individual
differences, organismic variables, task
variables, environmental
variables, and
training variables.
Competency
in this area assures awareness of
issues of experimental design, a
grounding in perception, cognition, and
physiological psychology, some knowledge
of computer
programming, and
quantitative modeling based
on techniques
from mathematical psychology,
engineering, and computer science. Familiarity
in the subject areas of basic
experimental psychology should be combined
with an awareness of applied research in such areas as work station design,
workload measurement, control
systems, information display systems, health
and safety, and human-computer interactions.
9.
Individual Assessment
This
domain refers to
a set of
skills that are
needed for assessing, interpreting,
and communicating
distinguishing characteristics
of individuals
for a variety of work-related purposes. The two primary purposes of
individual assessment can be
defined broadly as selection (e.g., hiring, promotion,
placement) and development (e.g.,
career planning, skill
and competency
building, rehabilitation,
employee counseling). Individual assessment
may help attain
multiple goals, many
of which are aimed
at achieving
some form of person-environment
fit, including assessee fit to a specific
job or
career track
and assessee
fit within
a specific organizational
context (e.g., department, work group).
Individual
assessment incorporates
skill in
individual testing, interviewing,
and appraisal
techniques for
the purpose
of evaluating ability,
personality, aptitude, and interest
characteristics. Individual assessment
also requires identifying, developing, selecting, and/or using the
appropriate means for such assessment, and communicating the results and interpretation
of assessment accurately in both
face-to-face and written form.
A
knowledge of the fact that
individual assessment focuses on
the whole person
is required.
In addition, a
knowledge of
the manner in
which environmental
and contextual factors
shape the
purpose and use of
the accumulated
information of individual
assessments is necessary.
10.
Job Evaluation and Compensation
This
competency area focuses on determining
the appropriate compensation level
for skills, tasks, and/or jobs. Job evaluation is a processes by which the
relative value of
jobs is determined and then linked to
commensurate compensation.
Job evaluation is closely tied to
and usually predicated upon sound
job/task analyses.
In general,
job evaluation
and compensation involves
identifying compensable
factors, attending
to perceptions
of fairness
and equity, and considering issues of comparable worth. Proficiency in
this competency
area is demonstrated by a
theoretical and applied understanding
of various job evaluation
techniques, compensation strategies (e.g.,
pay for skills,
team-based pay, etc.), and
the legal and social issues
surrounding compensation.
11.
Job/Task Analysis and Classification
This
domain encompasses
the theory
and techniques
used to
generate information
about what is involved in performing a job or task, the physical and
social context of this performance,
and the attributes needed
by an incumbent
for such performance.
Tasks are basic units
of activity, the elements
of which highlight
the connection between behavior and
result. A job
is an arbitrary grouping of tasks
designed to achieve an organizational objective.
It is common for jobs to be grouped or classified on the basis of a
variety of
criteria, depending
on the purpose and
goals of
the classification
system.
The
fundamental concern of job
and task analysis is to
obtain descriptive information
to design training
programs, establish performance
criteria, develop
selection systems,
implement job
evaluation systems,
redesign machinery
or tools, and create
career paths for personnel. The specific steps
taken and the type of information
gathered will vary depending on the purpose
of the job and task analyses and the classification system. Relevant information
includes, but is not limited
to: what worker
behaviors are involved;
the knowledge, skills,
and abilities required; the
standards of performance
desired; the tools, machines, and work aids used; the sources of information
available to the
incumbent; the
social, environmental, and physical
working conditions; and the nature
of supervision. Similarly, some of
the steps involved in
job and task analyses
include: identifying the purpose
of the analysis; preparing,
designing, or selecting a job
analysis system;
collecting job or task information;
summarizing the results; and documenting
the steps taken for future reference. The classification of jobs typically
entails identifying the
purpose and goals of the classification system;
designing a classification
scheme; categorizing jobs according
to the
established scheme; and
documenting the
classification process and outcomes.
The
individual competent in
this domain should have
a knowledge of the different
approaches to job/task analysis and
classification, as well as skill
in applying these techniques to real world situations. This competency area
is likely to continue
evolve as the nature
of work in our society continues
to change.
12.
Judgment and Decision Making
Judgment
and decision making encompasses an
area of research and knowledge that
is both prescriptive
and normative in
its emphases. This area
is important
because judgment
and decision
making under
conditions of uncertainty
probably describes the
majority of
the decisions managers, psychologists,
market forecasters, and
budget/policy planners make during the
course of their
work and research. A
knowledge of decision
theory, judgment,
and problem solving research
is important to understanding
the critical
processes that influence
how information is processed and the
quality
of the decision outcomes.
Many
different content areas within the
broad area of I/O psychology can be studied
explicitly as applications of decision
and judgment theory. Such areas
as vigilance behavior, employee
selection, choice behavior, and human performance
in complex environments
can be integrated by principles of
decision
theory that may require fewer concepts than are necessary when each content
areas is considered
distinct and unique. Applications
of decision theory
to the policies of
decision makers, judges, and
clinicians allow greater
understanding of inferential
procedures used
by individuals. Approaches
for describing
and predicting judgment
and decision
making include
Brunswik's lens
model, Bayesian inference,
subjective expected utility,
prospect theory, and the cognitive information processing paradigm. A
knowledge of these approaches
and an ability
to integrate across the different
approaches are indicative of
breadth as well as depth of training in
judgment and decision theory.
13.
Leadership and Management
Management
and leadership can be approached
at different levels. The study of
management and leadership at the
macro level involves
the influences senior
level individuals have in the
larger organizational context-setting strategy,
directing change, influencing values.
Theory and research
may focus
on characteristics
of leaders,
leader style,
leader-member interactions,
behaviors of leaders, and related
phenomena. At a more micro level,
leadership and management
involves the day-to-day exchange
between leaders
and followers. This
includes challenges faced by line
managers in their
relationships with subordinates in the assignment of tasks, evaluation of
performance, coaching and counseling
for improvement, resource planning, and
related tasks. Related to
many other areas, effective
leadership and management
involves task
analysis, motivation,
decision making,
career planning,
selection, performance
appraisal, interpersonal communication,
listening
and related
skills in
a supervisor-subordinate
context. Increasingly,
attention is placed on team
leadership and self-leadership (especially
in relation to
empowerment), and horizontal leadership
(i.e., peer
influence processes).
14.
Organization Development
This
domain encompasses
theory and
research relevant
to changing individuals,
groups, and organizations to
improve their effectiveness. This body
of theory and
research draws
from such related
fields as social psychology,
counseling psychology,
educational psychology, vocational psychology,
engineering psychology,
and organizational theory.
More
specifically, this domain concerns theory and research related, but not limited
to: individual change strategies
including training, socialization, attitude
change, career planning, counseling,
and behavior modification; interpersonal
and group change strategies, including team building and group training,
survey feedback, and
conflict management; role or
task oriented change
strategies, including job
redesign, role analysis,
management by objectives,
and temporary task
forces; and organization system-directed change
strategies, including survey
feedback, open systems oriented
change programs,
human resource accounting,
flexible working hours,
structural changes,
control system changes, and quality circles.
15.
Organization Theory
It
is well accepted
that the structure,
function, processes,
and other organizational-level
constructs have
an impact
upon the
behavior of individuals
in organizations.
Therefore, it
is necessary
that I/O psychologists
have a
thorough understanding of the nature
of complex organizations.
This understanding should include, but
is not limited to, classical
and contemporary
theories of
organizations, organizational
structure,
organizational design, technology,
and the
process of organizational
policy formation and implementation.
Much of this theory and research
is generated by sociologists and
those students of organizational behavior
who choose as
their unit of analysis
constructs not primarily within
the individual or within the
immediate group environment of
the individual.
Integration of organizational
and individual constructs is
an important
area of study within I/O psychology. Such an integration obviously requires
a knowledge of organizational theory.
16.
Performance Appraisal and Feedback
Performance
appraisal and feedback have both a
knowledge and a skill base. This
area centers on the methods of
measuring and evaluating individuals as they
perform organizational tasks
and on
taking action (administrative
and/or
developmental) with individuals
on the basis of
such appraisals.
The
knowledge base
includes a
thorough understanding of
rating scale construction
and use. Also relevant are the
areas of measurement theory, data
analysis, criterion theory and
development, motivation theory, and the factors
which underlie
interpersonal perception and judgment.
An understanding
of the similarities,
differences, and inconsistencies
among the
perceptions of performance and feedback supplied by peers, subordinates, and
supervisors is essential. The
skill base includes procedures for communicating performance evaluations to
job incumbents and counseling them
in appropriate means
of improving their
performance. Also, skill in designing a complete performance appraisal and
feedback system which
meets organizational needs while maintaining
and/or
enhancing worker
motivation and/or
performance is
required.
17.
Personnel Recruitment, Selection, and Placement
This
domain consists of the theory and
techniques involved in the effective matching
of individual needs,
preferences, skills, and abilities
with the needs
and preferences of organizations.
An organization's needs are defined by
the jobs assigned to positions in the organization.
More
specifically, this domain encompasses theory
and research in: human abilities;
test theory,
development, and use;
job analysis;
criterion development
and measurement;
recruitment; classical
and decision theory models
of selection and placement;
alternative selection devices
(e.g., interviews,
assessment centers); and legal and
societal considerations that impact
upon recruitment,
selection, and placement. In particular,
the individual
must keep
current with the
legislation and court
decisions related
to these issues, as well
as with responses of the
Society to laws and
their interpretations.
18.
Small Group Theory and Team Processes
Much
of human activity in organizations takes place in the presence of other people.
This is particularly true of
work behavior. The pervasiveness
of interpersonal
and task interdependence in
organizations demands that
I/O psychologists
have a good understanding of
the behavior of people in work groups.
Though the labels "group" and "team" are often used
interchangeably, it
is also
critical to have
a familiarity
with the growing
teamwork literature.
This requires an understanding that
extends beyond familiarity with
research and theory related to
interpersonal behavior in small groups. The
body of theory
and research concerning
groups and teams draws
from social
psychology, organizational
psychology, sociology, and organizational behavior.
A good background in group theory and team processes includes, but is
not limited to, an understanding of leadership, motivation, interpersonal influence,
group effectiveness, conformity,
conflict, role behavior, and
group
decision making.
19.
Training: Theory, Program Design, and Evaluation
This
domain includes theory and techniques
used to design,
conduct, and evaluate
instructional programs. The
instructional process begins with
a needs
assessment, including
organizational, job
and task,
and person analyses,
to determine the goals and constraints of the organization and the characteristics
of the job and trainees. Familiarity with basic phenomena of learning
(e.g., modern learning theory, conditioning principles), as well as knowledge
of the different approaches to
training (e.g., computer assisted instruction,
simulation, behavior modification)
are necessary for designing programs.
An ability
to develop
meaningful and
appropriate training objectives
is essential. Transfer of training
to the desired setting is an important
consideration. In order for
programs to be conducted as
planned, the
instructors must have good
instructional skills. Thus,
training the trainers
is necessary.
Both
the process and
the outcome of the program
may be evaluated
to determine
if it has been conducted as planned
and whether or not it has had any
effect. Knowledge of appropriate training evaluation criteria and design issues,
such as pre-
and post-testing and control groups,
as well as organizational
constraints is necessary for planning an evaluation strategy.
20.
Work Motivation
Work
motivation refers to the
conditions within the individual and
his or her
environment that influence the
direction, strength, and
persistence of relevant
individual behaviors in organizations when individual abilities and organizational
constraints are held constant.
Increasingly, work motivation is
a concern at the group level as well.
I/O
psychologists need to have a sound
background in work motivation in at
least
three respects. First they must
have a thorough understanding of
the theories
of human motivation including, but
not limited to, need theories, cognitive
theories, and reinforcement theories. In all cases there must be a thorough
understanding of the extensive
research and theory that exist
outside
the domain of work in the basic
psychological literature. At the second
level, there must be an
understanding of the research and
theory in motivationally
relevant domains of I/O psychology
that represent general applications
of one
or more motivational
perspectives. Such general strategies
for work
motivation as goal
setting, job design,
incentive systems,
and participative decision making are relevant here. Finally, there must
be an awareness of and ability
to apply very specific, motivationally oriented
practices that adapt motivational constructs to specific cases. For example,
understanding and implementing management-by-objectives involves an application
of goal setting principles
and participation.