Guidelines for Education and Training in Industrial-Organizational Psychology

This domain has to do with the various contexts within which the I-O psychologist operates. I-O psychologists should have knowledge of and should behave in accord with relevant ethical guidelines when consulting as well as conducting research (e.g., Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, 2002, Amended 2010, and the Ethical Principles in the Conduct of Research with Human Participants, 1973, 1982). I-O psychologists should maintain integrity at all times and across situations

I-O psychologists should also have knowledge of relevant federal, state, and local laws, statutes, regulations, and legal precedents (e.g., the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission's Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures). Since a fair amount of professional work done in organizations is covered by negotiated labor contracts, competency in this domain would also include an awareness of opportunities and restrictions imposed by such agreements, as well as an appreciation of the labor/management dynamics associated with them. All I-O psychologists should have knowledge of the various and the latest professional norms, standards, and guidelines relevant to their profession (e.g., Standards for Providers of Psychological Services, 1979; Principles for the Validation and Use of Personnel Selection Procedures, 2018; Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing, 2014).

I-O psychologists should be sensitive to and have the interpersonal skills to interface with a diverse audience in a multicultural, global environment (e.g., Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychologists, 2002). I-O psychologists are concerned about the well-being of individuals, human rights, and working conditions for individuals worldwide as reflected by SIOP’s prosocial agenda, NGO with consultative status to the United Nations (ECOSOC) and an official United Nation’s Global Compact participant.

I-O psychology is the scientific study of working and the application of that science to workplace issues facing individuals, teams, and organizations. I-O psychology is a context-centered discipline. This focus differentiates it from fields of psychology that study basic processes (e.g., perception, memory, learning), from fields that study particular populations of individuals (e.g., children, the mentally ill), and from fields that study mechanisms of behavior (e.g., physiological psychology, brain research). Although the populations of individuals and the locations are diverse, we are eclectic. Because we borrow ideas, procedures, and paradigms from the other fields of psychology, it is important that we have an understanding of the strengths, weaknesses, and sources of our borrowings.

While we draw freely from other fields of psychology, we may not borrow equally from all fields. We share a great deal with social psychology, psychometrics, motivation, learning, and personality. Historically, the discipline has borrowed less heavily from clinical and developmental psychology. The importance of these fields of psychology to the I-O area changes over time and obviously varies with the particular interests of the individual I-O psychologist. It is difficult to predict which of the related fields will develop research leads and findings in the near and distant future that will have an impact on I-O psychology. In any event, to be consistent with APA recommendations (American Psychological Association Committee on Accreditation, 2013), exposure should reflect competency in the following broad areas: biological aspects of behavior, cognitive and affective aspects of behavior, and social aspects of behavior.

Students in graduate programs in I-O psychology should be able to read and to comprehend the issues and controversies involved in basic research published in journals in at least a subset of these related areas. The specific fields of competency and journals read will vary among individuals, but I-O psychologists should be able to understand historical and new developments in other areas of psychology that impact their areas of research and practice.

If I-O-psychology graduate students know how the discipline of psychology developed and evolved into its present configuration, then each generation will share the common bonds and language of the discipline. They will also possess knowledge of the intellectual heritage of our field. Such common knowledge is important for the pragmatic functional role it plays in communication and in preventing frequent repetitions of the mistakes and dead ends of the past. Many historical schools and systems of psychology have contemporary representatives, either in a pure or a diluted form; knowledge of the roots of these different theoretical positions is important. For example, many contemporary debates about theoretical perspectives appear dysfunctional when viewed against the background of historical developments in our field. Knowledge of our history enables us to appreciate these different approaches both for their unique contributions to psychology and for the alternatives they provide for an understanding of observable phenomena.

An understanding of history and systems of psychology allows integration of I-O psychology into the broader discipline by tracing our roots back to American functionalism, radical behaviorism, views of Freud, Titchener, Tolman, Spearman, and Cattell and other perspectives that have shaped the thinking of psychology. Such integration is important to foster an attitude among I-O psychologists that places high value on the development of theoretical approaches to the I-O psychology problems that are well integrated with psychology as a whole. In addition, there is the specific history of the field of I-O psychology to consider. Understanding one's roots as an I-O psychologist and our more recent past is essential.

In all employment sectors, success as an I-O psychologist requires the development of a variety of professional skills. Communication, business development, and project management represent broad categories capturing some of the most-essential professional skills.

Effective communication is critical and required to interact with and to influence others regardless of the context. Communication skills encompass using technology, writing, and presenting. They also involve interpersonal, negotiation, and conflict-management skills in order to build and maintain relationships and an ability to navigate relationships in a politically savvy way. Communication skills are particularly important in team contexts. An understanding of how individual efforts facilitate group performance and the ability to contribute as a member of a group are essential. I-O psychologists must be able to effectively translate scientific research to professional and layperson audiences.

Business writing is characterized by brevity, action orientation, attention to the audience, and link to the organization's bottom line. Business presentation involves the development and delivery of information to a professional audience that clearly articulates key messages in terms that the audience can understand, along with skills in responding to questions. Academic writing involves summarizing theory, previous research, study design and procedures, statistical results, conclusions, and theoretical and applied implications.

Effective business and research proposal development depend on the ability to create a vision and package ideas and requests in a fashion that leads to their acceptance, which results in securing funds and support to provide services or to conduct studies. Many good ideas are rejected because they are poorly communicated or inadequately justified in terms of their benefits. A practical problem-solving approach is frequently required in a business or consulting setting. Relevant content and methodological skill or knowledge, regardless of its source or discipline, along with creative "outside-the-box" thinking, is often required to address and solve practical business problems. This involves understanding how elements relate to a larger whole (e.g., the effect of a change in compensation on employee productivity, satisfaction, and turnover).

Effective consulting encompasses problem-solving and decision-making skills, communicating solutions in layperson’s terms, selling products and services, developing and maintaining relationships with clients, and providing high quality customer service.

Project-management skills focus on the details of organizing work. This may include budgeting, scheduling, delegating, and managing/coaching others so that work is accomplished in an efficient and effective manner. Project management often requires the integration and utilization of information from several sources. Success is contingent upon being able to attend to detail while maintaining a view of the "big picture."

I-O psychologists apply the scientific method to investigate issues of critical relevance to individuals, businesses, and society. The research-methods domain includes the procedures, techniques, and tools useful in the conduct of empirical investigations of phenomena of interest in I-O psychology. The specific areas encompassed by research methods include the scientific method (with attention to issues in the philosophy of science); inductive and deductive reasoning, the generation and articulation of problem statements, research questions, and hypotheses; literature review and critique; the nature and definition of constructs; study designs (experimental, quasi-experimental, and non-experimental); and psychometrics.

At an operational level, research methods includes, but is not limited to, the manipulation of variables (in experimental research), the concepts underlying and methods used for the assessment of the reliability and validity of measures, the administration of various measures (questionnaires, interviews, observations of behavior, projective measures, etc.), the use of various sampling procedures (probability- and non-probability-based) especially as applied to survey research, the conduct of research in the laboratory and the field with various strategies (experiment, survey, simulation, case study, etc.), the use of statistical methods to establish relationships between variables, causality, and the formulation of research-based conclusions. Specific knowledge about relative strengths and weaknesses of different research strategies, an understanding of qualitative research methods, and an appreciation of the benefits of alternative strategies must be developed. Information-technology-related skills remain important for gathering and analyzing data and specific technology-related skills (e.g., programming) may be particularly useful. Finally, an understanding of the ethical standards that govern the conduct of all research involving human participants is essential. A solid foundation of knowledge in research methods will ensure that I-O psychologists are savvy consumers and producers of I-O-psychological research.

This domain has to do with the various statistical techniques that are used in the analysis of data generated by empirical research. The domain includes both descriptive and inferential statistical methods, spans both parametric and nonparametric statistical methods, and includes both quantitative and qualitative research methods and data analysis. Among the specific topics included in the domain are: estimates of central tendency, estimates of variability, sampling distributions, point and interval estimates, inferences about differences between means and proportions, univariate and multivariate analyses of variance (fixed, random, and mixed effects models), and linear and non-linear regression and correlation. Some more-advanced statistical techniques include but are not limited to path analysis, multiple-discriminant function analysis, multiple and canonical regression, factor analysis, components analysis, cluster analysis, pattern analysis, structural-equation modeling, multilevel modeling, latent growth modeling, dyadic/social-network analysis, and meta-analysis.

Knowledge of this domain implies a basic understanding of the statistical foundation of such methods, asymptotic sampling variances of different statistics, the assumptions underlying the proper use of the same methods, and the generalizations, inferences, and interpretations that can legitimately be made on the basis of statistical evidence. It is also important to be able to translate research findings into theoretical and applied implications in layperson terms. Students should be skilled in using at least one of the major statistical software packages designed for social science research.

Attitudes, opinions, and beliefs are important for quality of work life, for diagnosing problems in organizations, and in regards to their relation to behavioral intentions and behaviors at work. Some of the job attitudes typically studied by I-O psychologists include, but are not limited to, engagement, job satisfaction (general and facets), job involvement, organizational commitment, and perceptions of support and fairness.

I-O psychologists should also be aware of the extensive literature on attitude theory, measurement, and change. In particular, I-O psychologists must know how attitudes are formed and changed and how they relate to behaviors. With respect to the latter, knowledge of the literature on the relationship between attitudes and behavior is important if for no other reason than to know the limitations of the connections between these two sets of constructs.

Theory and research regarding career development are concerned with the interplay between individuals and environments and attempt to describe the nature of the patterns of positions held and resultant experiences during an individual's lifespan. Included in this domain are models and explanations of the origin and measurement of individual aptitudes and vocational interests; how individual, social, environmental, and chance factors shape educational and training experiences; specific-skill training and development; early work history; occupational choice; organizational/job choice and switching; the sequence of jobs taken after organizational entry; work/family issues; midcareer plateaus; and retirement planning. I-O psychologists should be familiar with general workforce trends and patterns as well (e.g., protean careers, job crafting).

Knowledge in this area would reflect an understanding of these processes, events, or phenomena as they are considered both by the individual employee and from the perspective of the employing organization. Knowledge of how organizational practices such as recruitment, selection, job placement, socialization, training, performance appraisal, and career-planning programs enhance or retard career development is also necessary, as is an understanding of the special career issues and challenges faced by particular groups (e.g., women, ethnic minorities, the disabled).

Almost all applications of I-O psychology (e.g., selection, human resources planning, leadership, performance appraisal, organization design, organization diagnosis and development, training) involve measurements against criteria (standards) that indicate effectiveness and well-being of individuals, groups, and/or organizations, as well as inferences drawn from measures used to assess those entities. The selection of criteria is not a simple issue and represents a significant area of concern for I-O psychologists.

The knowledge base of this domain incorporates understanding the theoretical issues such as single versus multiple criteria, criterion dynamics, the characteristics of good and acceptable criteria (relevance, reliability, practicality), and criteria as a basis for understanding human behavior at work and in organizations. Common criteria of interest include but are not limited to work performance including task and contextual performance, withdrawal (lateness, absenteeism, turnover), counterproductive behavior, and health and well-being.
Beyond this knowledge, the I-O psychologist should have the skills necessary for developing valid criteria and methods of measuring them. These include skills in many of the other domains identified in the document (e.g., Job/Work Analysis, Research Methods).

Much of human activity in organizations takes place in the presence of other people. This is particularly true of work behavior. The pervasiveness of interpersonal and task interdependence in organizations demands that I-O psychologists have a good understanding of the behavior of people in work groups. It is also critical to have a familiarity with the growing teamwork literature. This requires an understanding that extends beyond familiarity with research and theory related to interpersonal behavior in small groups. The body of theory and research concerning groups and teams draws from social psychology, organizational psychology, sociology, and organizational behavior. A good background in group theory and team processes includes, but is not limited to, an understanding of leadership, motivation, interpersonal influence, group effectiveness, conformity, conflict, role behavior, and group decision making. Contemporary issues include but are not limited to multi-team systems, virtual teams, and cross-cultural teams.

Human Performance is the study of limitations and capabilities in human skilled behavior. Skill is broadly construed to include perceptual, motor, memory, and cognitive activities, and the integration of these into more-complex behavior. Emphasis is on the interaction of human behavior and tools, tasks, and environments, ranging from detection and identification of simple events to problem solving, decision-making, human errors, accidents, and control of complex environments. The variables that affect human performance include individual differences, disabilities, organismic variables, task variables, environmental variables, and training variables.

This domain refers to a set of skills that are needed for assessing, interpreting, and communicating distinguishing characteristics of individuals for a variety of work-related purposes. The two primary purposes of individual assessment can be defined broadly as selection (e.g., hiring, promotion, placement) and development (e.g., career planning, skill and competency building, rehabilitation, employee counseling, coaching). Individual assessment may help attain multiple goals, many of which are aimed at achieving some form of person-environment fit, including assessee fit to a specific job or career track and assessee fit within a specific organizational context (e.g., department, work group).
Individual assessment incorporates skill in individual testing, interviewing, and appraisal techniques for the purpose of evaluating ability, personality, aptitude, and interest characteristics. Individual assessment also requires identifying, developing, selecting, and/or using the appropriate means for such assessment, and communicating the results and interpretation of assessment accurately in both face-to-face and written form.

In addition, knowledge of the manner in which environmental and contextual factors shape the purpose and use of the accumulated information of individual assessments is necessary.

I-O psychology emphasizes the role and measurement of individual differences in the study of work behavior. Because this emphasis requires accurate assessments of unobservable psychological traits, a sound background in both classical and modern measurement theories and their respective areas of application is essential. The domain of measurement includes theory and assessment of individual differences in skills, abilities, personality, motivation, and interests. This exposure would cover the nature of construct measurement and the philosophy-of-science assumptions underpinning many of our approaches to scale development. Other topics that might be covered are the measurement of attitudes (e.g., job satisfaction) by scaling procedures, the measurement of performance on complex jobs, and the measurement of comparable worth of individuals to organizations.

A great deal of what I-O psychologists do in this area is subjected to close scrutiny by courts of law, civil-rights groups, and professional colleagues. Because of these external and internal pressures, students must be trained to conduct research and to apply measurement principles in conformity with the highest standards of our discipline. Students may also need skills to help communicate their research methods and findings to interested parties outside of the discipline.

Although classical test theory offers an accessible introduction to key measurement principles, it is important to recognize alternative approaches to measurement. For example, questions about item and scale bias, test equating, minimum-competence assessments, mastery testing, tailored testing, and appropriateness raise issues that can be addressed by classical test theory, item response theory, and other solutions. Although psychometric applications were originally studied in relation to ability measurement, they have been generalized to other psychological constructs. Key topics in the arena of individual differences measurement include but are not limited to classical test theory, item response theory, psychometrics (reliability and validity), validation, scaling, and scale development.

This competency area focuses on determining the appropriate compensation level for skills, tasks, and/or jobs. Job evaluation is a process by which the relative value of jobs is determined and then linked to commensurate compensation. It is closely tied to and usually predicated upon sound job/task/work analyses. In general, job evaluation and compensation involve identifying compensable factors, interpreting market data, attending to perceptions of fairness and equity, and considering issues of comparable worth. Proficiency in this competency area is demonstrated by a theoretical and applied understanding of various job-evaluation techniques, compensation strategies (e.g., pay for skills, team-based pay), benefits, and the legal and social issues surrounding compensation.

This domain encompasses the theory and techniques used to generate information about what is involved in performing a task, a job, or more broadly, work; the physical and social context of this performance; and the attributes needed by an incumbent for such performance. Tasks are basic units of activity, the elements of which highlight the connection between behavior and result. A job is a grouping of tasks designed to achieve an organizational objective. It is common for jobs to be grouped or classified on the basis of a variety of criteria, depending on the purpose and goals of the classification system.

The fundamental concern of job/task/work analysis and competency modeling is to obtain descriptive information to design training programs, establish performance criteria, develop selection systems, implement job-evaluation systems, redesign machinery or tools, and create career paths for personnel. The specific steps taken and the type of information gathered will vary depending on the purpose of the job/task/work analyses and on the classification system. Relevant information includes, but is not limited to: what worker behaviors are involved; the knowledge, skills, and abilities required; personality attributes relevant to targeted outcomes; the standards of performance desired; the tools, machines, and work aids used; the sources of information available to the incumbent; the social, environmental, and physical working conditions; and the nature of supervision. Similarly, some of the steps involved in job/task/work analyses include: identifying the purpose of the analysis; preparing, designing, or selecting a job-analysis system; collecting job/task/work information; summarizing the results; and documenting for future reference the steps taken. The classification of jobs typically entails identifying the purpose and goals of the classification system, designing a classification scheme, categorizing jobs according to the established scheme, and documenting the classification process and outcomes.

The individual who is competent in this domain should have knowledge of the different approaches to job/task/work analysis and classification, as well as skill in applying these techniques to real-world situations. This competency area is likely to continue to evolve as the nature of work in our society continues to change.

Judgment and decision-making encompasses an area of research and knowledge that is both prescriptive and normative in its emphases. This area is important because judgment and decision making under conditions of uncertainty probably describes the majority of the decisions managers, psychologists, market forecasters, and budget/policy planners make during the course of their work and research. Knowledge of decision theory, judgment, and problem solving research, and heuristics and biases is important to understanding how information is processed and the quality of the individual-, group-, and organization- level decision outcomes.

Many different content areas within the broad area of I-O psychology can be studied explicitly as applications of decision and judgment theory including vigilance and choice behavior, negotiation, employee selection, performance appraisal, and human performance in complex environments. Applications of decision theory to the policies of decision makers allow for a greater understanding of inferential procedures used by individuals. Approaches for describing and predicting judgment and decision-making include Brunswik's lens model, Bayesian inference, subjective expected utility, prospect theory, and the cognitive information-processing paradigm. Knowledge of these approaches and an ability to integrate across the different approaches are indicative of breadth as well as depth of training in judgment and decision theory.

Management and leadership can be approached from different levels (e.g., teams, organizations, countries). The study of management and leadership at the macro level involves the influences that senior-level individuals have in the larger organizational context such as setting strategy, directing change, and influencing values. Theory and research may focus on characteristics of leaders, leader style, leader-member interactions, behaviors of leaders, and related phenomena. At a more-micro level, leadership and management involves the day-to-day exchange between formal and informal leaders and followers. This includes challenges faced by line managers in their relationships with subordinates in assigning tasks, evaluating performance, coaching and counseling for improvement, resource planning, and related tasks. Effective leadership and management involve task analysis, motivation, decision-making, career planning, selection, performance appraisal, interpersonal communication, listening, and related skills in a supervisor-subordinate context. Within this domain, it is important to be aware of the advantages and disadvantages of the various objective and subjective/perceptual measures of leadership effectiveness and emergence. Increasingly, attention is placed on team leadership and self-leadership (especially in relation to empowerment) and on horizontal leadership (i.e., peer-influence processes).

Organizations can have significant impact on employee health, safety, and well-being. This competency area requires the study of interactions between human physical capabilities and conditions in the workplace in an attempt to understand the limits of performance and both positive and negative effects on workers. Among the factors considered are hazardous working conditions induced by toxic substances (e.g., chemical, biological, nuclear), loud noises, blinding lights, noxious odors, etc. Other factors considered are related to organizational structure and job design such as shift work or the requirements of particular tasks. Additional sources of organizational stress that may affect performance and attitudinal variables include downsizing, mistreatment (e.g., abusive supervision, harassment, incivility), work-nonwork pressures, and outsourcing. I-O psychologists should be familiar with laws (e.g., Americans with Disabilities Act) and government regulations and standards relating to the workplace (e.g., Occupational Safety and Health Administration law and regulations), as well as with physiological measures of psychological constructs. I-O Psychologists should also have awareness of how these issues play out and are being addressed in the developing world (where standards and legal protections are lacking, where poverty and ill-health are considerably more rampant, and where individuals work within more informal economies).

This domain encompasses theory and research relevant to changing individuals, groups, and organizations to improve their effectiveness. This body of theory and research draws from such related fields as social psychology, counseling psychology, educational psychology, vocational psychology, human factors, organizational behavior, and organizational theory.

Organization development concerns theory and research related but not limited to individual change strategies (e.g., training, socialization, attitude change, career planning, counseling, and behavior modification), interpersonal and group change strategies (e.g., team building and group training, survey feedback, and conflict management), role- or task-oriented change strategies (e.g., job redesign, role analysis, management-by-objectives, and temporary task forces), and organization-system-directed change strategies (e.g., survey feedback, open–systems-oriented change programs, human-resource accounting, flexible work hours, structural changes, control-system changes, and quality circles). I-O psychologists should know how to diagnose problems and challenges in organizational settings and be able to design and evaluate the outcomes of organization development interventions (e.g., program evaluation).

It is well accepted that structure, function, processes, and other organizational-level constructs have an impact on the behavior of individuals in organizations. Therefore, it is useful for I-O psychologists to have a thorough understanding of the nature of complex organizations. This understanding should include, but is not limited to, classical and contemporary theories of organizations, organizational structure, organizational design, organizational culture/climate, organizational change including change management, technology, and the process of organizational policy formation and implementation. Sociologists and those students of organizational behavior who study constructs at an aggregate level of analysis generate much of this theory and research. Multilevel theory acknowledges the importance of levels of analysis and the integration of organizational and individual constructs.

Performance appraisal/management has both a knowledge and a skill base. This area (sometimes also referred to as Talent Management) centers on the methods of measuring and evaluating individuals as they perform organizational tasks, the influence of the social context in which they perform and are evaluated, and on taking action (administrative such as promotion/succession or rewards and/or developmental) with individuals on the basis of such appraisals.

The knowledge base includes a thorough understanding of rating-scale construction and use and rater training. Also relevant are the areas of psychometric theory, measure development, data analysis, criterion theory and development, motivation theory, and the factors that underlie interpersonal perception, judgment, and evaluation (i.e., rating). An understanding of the similarities, differences, and inconsistencies among the perceptions and evaluations of performance and feedback provided by peers, customers, subordinates, and supervisors is essential.

The skill base includes procedures for communicating performance evaluations to job incumbents and coaching them in appropriate means of improving their performance. Also, skill in designing a complete performance appraisal-/management–and-feedback system that meets organizational needs while maintaining and/or enhancing worker motivation and/or performance is required.

This domain consists of the theory and techniques involved in the effective matching of the needs, preferences, skills, and abilities of job recruits, job applicants, and existing employees with the needs and preferences of organizations. An organization's needs in this context are defined by the jobs assigned to positions in the organization.

This domain encompasses theory and research in: human abilities; test theory, development, and use; job analysis; criterion development and measurement; recruitment; classical and decision-theory models of selection and placement; various recruitment strategies; alternative selection devices (e.g., interviews, assessment centers); and legal and societal considerations that affect recruitment, selection, and placement. In particular, the individual must keep current with the legislation and court decisions related to these issues, as well as with responses of SIOP to laws and their interpretations.

This domain includes theory and techniques used to design, conduct, and evaluate instructional programs. The instructional process begins with a needs assessment, including organizational, job, task, and person analyses, to determine the goals and constraints of the organization and the characteristics of the job and of trainees. Familiarity with basic phenomena of learning (e.g., modern learning theory, conditioning principles), as well as knowledge of the different approaches to training (e.g., computer-assisted instruction, simulation, behavior modification) are necessary for designing programs and, depending on the I-O psychologist’s position and employment sector, skill at delivering training and teaching others may also be required. An ability to develop meaningful and appropriate training objectives is essential. Transfer of training to the desired setting is also an important consideration. In order for programs to be conducted as planned, the instructors must have good instructional skills. Thus, training the trainers is necessary.

Both the process and the outcome of a training program may be evaluated to determine if it has been conducted as planned and whether it has had any effect. Knowledge of appropriate training-evaluation criteria and design issues, such as pre- and post-testing and control groups, as well as of organizational constraints is necessary for planning an evaluation strategy.

Work motivation refers to the conditions within the individuals and their environment that influence the direction, strength, and persistence of relevant individual behaviors in organizations when individual abilities and organizational constraints are held constant. Increasingly, work motivation is a concern at the group level as well.

I-O psychologists need to have a sound background in work motivation in at least three respects. First they must have a thorough understanding of the theories of human motivation including, but not limited to, need theories, cognitive theories, and reinforcement theories. In all cases there must be a thorough understanding of the extensive research and theory that exist outside the domain of work in the basic-psychological literature. At the second level, there must be an understanding of the research and theory in motivationally relevant domains of I-O psychology that represent general applications of one or more motivational perspectives. Such general strategies for work motivation as goal setting, job design, self-regulation, incentive systems, and participative decision-making are relevant here. Finally, there must be an awareness of and an ability to apply very specific, motivationally oriented practices that adapt motivational constructs to specific cases. For example, the effective implementation of many employee development practices involves an application of goal-setting principles and participation.